Civil Engineering Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Civil Engineering - Essay Example pulated language and hence ease of interpretation and application, non-legalistic language, minimal use of such broad terms as â€Å"reasonable† and â€Å"fair† that induce subjectivity in interpretation and comprehension, clear demarcation and identification of roles and responsibilities of individual parties that form part of the project, simple structure and decisions supported with rational reasoning. It is a contract between a Contractor and an Employer. The employer is entitled to hire a Project Manager (PM) in order to get his work administered and his objectives safeguarded. As evident from the organizational chart below, NEC (ECC) contract is developed only between the Employer and Contractor. However, various other forms of NEC contracts have been published to organize the work and enhance coordination between various parties that are involved in the project. The Employer forms NEC PSC contracts with the PM, Designer and Supervisor. The Adjudicator is linked with both the Employer and the Contractor. The Contractor in turn, may hire Subcontractors for assistance and time saving. The Employer gets the work administered by PM. An NEC3 (ECC) encourages a PM to be proactive and work contrary to the general trend among PMs of reacting on what comes next. Being the administrator of Employer and working on his behalf, any decision that the PM takes has the same worth and applicability as that coming directly from the Employer. As per the ECC contract, PM is required to notify the Contractor about compensation events as they occur unlike most other forms of contract, in which it is for the Contractor to realize that he should be compensated for the change in nature or scope of work. Many times, the Contractor has to indulge in lengthy arguments with the owners in order to make them realize. This, in turn, ruins their inter-relationships, and the project suffers. Hence, in an NEC3 (ECC), a PM is more dutiful and watchful in the best interest of the overall project

African American Athletes Essay Example for Free

African American Athletes Essay American student athletes have always faced stereotypes in and out of the classroom, being seen as self-segregating or dumb jocks that really wouldnt be at school if it werent for their athletic ability. Although these stereotypes are applied to both white and black athletes, African American students, especially men, feel it more than their white counterparts. African Americans are already, for the most part, seen as intellectually inferior, so when they are seen in an academic environment they are automatically judged. If they didnt get into school just for being black, they got into school for being a black athlete. Excuses are made as to why African American student athletes and pro athletes dominate in the world of sports in general. From the time the black athlete stepped into the sports arena and began to compete with whites, white people have been looking for an explanation. In his article Sailes looks into the myths and stereotypes surrounding African American athletes, most of which have been created by whites. In loosely replicated the experiment that Sailes conducted with his students and in doing so I found that the stereotypes he discusses do exist and many people strongly believe in some of the myths. I interviewed both male and female athletes and non-athletes alike and surprisingly most of their answers to my questions were the same. I asked them all the same five questions; 1. Do you think African Americans dominate in sports? 2. Which Sports? 3. Are there certain positions they are better at? 4. Why? 5. Is their demeanor on the field or court different than that of a white athlete? and 6. Have you heard any myths about why black athletes are better? Interviewee #1, A white female on the basketball team at Gettysburg College felt that black athletes were better at all sports and in all positions, but particularly in basketball and football. She has learned from experience that black athletes are more loud and aggressive. It was her belief that African Americans are better at sports because of genetics. She also said that it could be because historically they have done hard labor and had menial jobs, so their physical condition has evolved. The one myth she has heard is that African Americans have an extra bone in their leg which makes them capable of jumping higher and running faster. Interviewee # 2, an African American football player stated that blacks are better at all sports, but especially football, in such positions as cornerback, running back, and wide receiver. When asked why he felt that this is true his answer was because were just nasty like that. In regards to myths he recalled one of his high school classmates expressing to him that the reason blacks were better was because they still had some monkey left in them. Interviewee # 3, a white college graduate, non-athlete articulated that blacks are better at any sport they try but not in any positions that require brain power or thought. He said that they are not usually good quarterbacks because they arent smart enough. When I asked him why, his response was, because they are dumb Ns. He believes that they become athletes because they have no other options to get a job or get rich, unless they can rap. He also stated that the reason they can run so fast is because they are used to running from the cops. Interviewee # 4, A white male who is a former athlete said that he believes that African Americans are superior in all sports except for lacrosse and hockey, and that the reason for this is because they are much more expensive to start up and maintain- as opposed to soccer/football/basketball where all you need is a ball really. He thinks black people on the whole start out life economically feeble compared to whites and believes in the myth that they have been evolved into more muscular and stronger people because of the process of natural selection during slavery where the slave owners bought the biggest and strongest, and theyre offspring are the ones that created the people that are dominating in sports now. My last interviewee was a female African American basketball player who felt that African Americans dominate in football and basketball because it is the only sport they want to play so they strive for it. She also said that blacks are more aggressive because it means more to them. In the majority of my interviews the participants mentioned what Sailes referred to as the Mandingo Theory, in which the physical superiority of African Americans is attributed to the selection and so called breeding process along with the manual labor performed during the days of slavery. The psychological and dumb jock theories were also articulated in the answers I received from the white students for they all said at some point or another during the interview that African Americans are intellectually inferior and all they have going for them is sports, and even in the world of sports there are positions that they are mentally incapable of occupying. The one thing that I believe all the participants agreed on both black and white is that African Americans are somehow genetically different. I was really taken aback by my findings. Even though I have learned throughout this semester that people are more racist than I ever thought they were, I didnt realize that this racism is existent in literally everything. Im not really into sports and do not pay attention to them, so I had no idea that people felt this way about African American athletes. So, it seems as though African Americans are battling this war on racism on yet another front.

Mechanisms of Musculoskeletal Pain

Mechanisms of Musculoskeletal Pain Musculo-skeletal pain is a complex sensation where sensory, affective and cognitive dimensions of pain alongwith parallel neural networks in brain are associated with constellation of factors. Though pain occurs to show protective gesture, but when it surpasses threshold, exerts debilitating effect upon health and triggers concomitant physiological and psychological concerns of perilous ramifications. Right from the activation of primary afferent nociceptors upto the cortical processing of the pain in the higher regions of the brain, pain trajectory can be dissected into transduction, conduction, synaptic transmission and modulation. Besides, environmental, behavioral and psychological risks involved, all these stages of pain sensitivity, severity and analgesic responses are mediated by different set of genes and genetic variants. Transduction of noxious stimuli is regulated by transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M, member 8 (TRPM8) and transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily A, member 1 (TRPA1) encoded by TRPM8 and TRPA1 genes, which plays an important role in the inhibition of background potassium channels. SCN10A encoded, voltage gated sodium channel Nav1.8 is essential for signal generation in response to cold stimuli. The nociception, due to heat stimulus and red hot chili pepper activates the ion channel TRPV1 and capsaicin receptors. However, TRPV1 also regulates the inflammatory pain thresholds, TRPV4, in conjunction with TRPV1 and TRPV2, transduces both thermo and mechano-sensations. The pain related transgenic knockout studies offered significant information on the genes that influence pain transduction. (Lacroix-Fralish ML. etal, 2007). Three genes SCN9A, SCN10A and SCN11A which encode sodium channels are observed to be expressed in sensing neurons. . SCN9A carriers, who have defective Nav1.7 remains pain free, which makes it a novel target for sodium selective analgesic drugs. SCN10A (Nav1.8) is also a significant contributors to the transduction signaling of pain pathway. Though, encoded channel Nav1.8 does not induces action potential but plays a significant role in setting the pain thresholds. SCN11A gets activated, close to the resting membrane potential and mutations in this gene have been associated to the loss of pain perception. Voltage gated sodium channel nociceptors specific genes SCN1A, SCN3A, SCN8A, SCN9A, SCN10A, SCN11A along with potassium channel encoding KCNQ genes play a significant role in nociceptive conduction. Synaptic transmission is regulated by several genes such as GR1N1, GR1N2, GR1A1-4, GR1C1-5, NK1R. Some voltage gated calcium channels encoding genes, such as CACNA1A-S, CACNA2D1 mediates the neurotransmitter release in the pre-synaptic membrane.Several genes and genetic variants have also been implicated in the centr al, peripheral and microglial pain modulation. (Foulks and Wood. 2008). How damage sensing neurons submit input signals regarding the extent and severity of pain to central nervous sytem (CNS) is highly complex. Very many brain areas are involved in sensory discrimination and affective evaluation which determine the nature of pain perception. Genetic variation of COMT gene that encodes catechol-o-methyltransferase regulates the inactivation of catecholamines neurotransmitters and reduced COMT enzymatic activity which leads to increased pain sensitivity and temporal summation of pain (diatchenko L et al. 2005) Decreased adrenalin metabolism due to reduced COMT activity increases pain through the stimulation of ÃŽ ²2/ 3-adrenergic receptor antagonist. A few genome wide association studies (GWAS) on musculo-skeletal phenotypes have been carried out which revealed some strongly associated SNPs within CCT5 and FAM173B genes that influence chronic widespread pain in lumbar spine region. Over the past decade, an intriguing development in cellular genomics has aroused curiosity of the possibility of miRNA in pain research. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are family of small, noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression in sequence specific manner. Their non-perfect pairing of 6-8 nucleotides with target mRNA subsequently forming miRNA Induced Silencing Complex (miRISC) generally results in translational repression, destabilization of mRNAs and gene silencing. Some miRNAs have been implicated in pain mechanism including neuronal plasticity, neurogenesis, nociceptor excitability, chronic pain conditions and pain threshold. They engrossed the attention when observed that these miRNAs play an evident role in the conditional deletion in nociceptors of th e miRNA producing enzyme, Dicer and blocks inflammatory pain hypersensitivity. The pioneer studies on the role and relevance of miRNAs in pain demonstrated that miR-134 is modulated in the trigeminal ganglion in response to inflammatory pain. BDNF triggered miR-132 is upregulatedin cortical neurons which is identified as modulation of nociception signaling. miRNA Let-7 that target  µ-opiod receptors plays considerable influence on the opioid tolerance in mice. Activity regulated miR-188 is a significant player of synaptic plasticity tuning. Dysregulation of miR-29a/b is associated with structural plasticity in psycho-stimulant exposure. In the traumatized spinal injury miR-219 is downregulated 7 days after contusion whereby sciatic nerve ligation induces an up-regulation of this miRNA. In chronic pain miR-124 down regulates in dorsal root ganglion neurons in inflammatory muscle as well as in sciatic nerve crush. Researchers are instrumental in understanding the epigenetic mechanisms in relation to pain causation and alleviation. Epigenetic modifications play significant role in cytokine metabolism, neurotransmitter release and response, analgesic sensitivity and central sensitization. Changes in chromatin structure may lead to acute to chronic pin transition. Prior priming (sensitization) of spinal microglia with initial inflammatory challenge, subsequent challenges create enhanced pain intensity and duration. Effects of neonatal pain experience relates to adult pain sensitivity where they exhibit spinal neuronal circuits with increased input and segmental changes in nociceptive primary afferent axons and enhanced or altered pain stimulation. Histone modifications, a significant epigenetic mechanism which may alter the gene expression of pain is highly associated with glutamate decarboxylase (Gad2), Shal related subfamily member 3 (Kcnd3), melting CpG binding protein 2 (Mecp2), potassium vol tage gated channels, oprin 1, Scn9a Genes. Histone acetylation and DNA methylation have also been implicated in chronic pain conditions. Though an epigenetic alteration in relation to the risk of pain is in infancy but in near future, such knowledgeable musings will unravel several novel targets for analgesic drugs and preventive modalities. Brain does more than understanding and responding to pain irrespective of sensory inputs and even in the absence of external inputs. Why even cordectomy or anesthetic blocks of sympathetic ganglia do not stop phantom limb pain? Pain genetics have the capacity to enrich us of several such intricate and unforeseen consequences involved with pain etiology, risk factors and variable analgesia. In future, investigation of relevant genomic sequences has many revelations in store for us, by which we will be able to regulate or control pain by switching on or off various genes that causes it.

The New Economy Essay -- Economics

The way that society has depicted the future is right on: stress at work without job security, virtual slavery in micro-enterprises exploiting economic roles, temporary jobs through uncertain agencies, low wages for service employees, self-entrepreneurship and self-management as an instrument of pressure to control and direct the masses (Lloyd, 2008). The New Economy has just collapsed and it is already clear that flexibility, customization and off shoring was not promises but rather threats, and meant nothing else to most people as poor working conditions and poverty. However, workers in the services market and misery are not the only ones affected by the drastic decline of social standards. Low wages and unstable jobs largely dominate in certain categories: cleaning services, catering, domestic work or care for the elderly. And the fact that these sectors often employ migrants in the most unacceptable conditions, without any legal guarantee and even without a contract, not at all accidental. The process of crisis that weakens the foundations of capitalist development is accompanied by a steady worsening of exclusion and social disintegration. The miserable world of modern services is instead a lesser way to make a living, which lives only because the number of workers profitable (in terms of value) decreases massively, and that, therefore, far from leading to a new model of capitalist accumulation , functions include providing a decoy to those who see their living standards falling into poverty. The younger workers are heavily affected by low wages. Among those under thirty years, the share of low pay is twice as high as in the 30-49 age groups. They represent 45% of low wages for less than 30% of all employees. If the w... .... Organizations must attract employees in a changing labor market. The labor market becomes more diverse in terms of gender and ethnicity (Vosko, 2009). Therefore, the pressure to equal opportunity in hiring practices and promotion decisions will remain for some time in the future. Other trends increase the challenge for organizations. The contingent workforce includes part-time workers, self-employed subcontractor and independent professionals hired by companies to deal with unexpected challenges and temporary. References: Flowers, Ronald (2004) the Victimization and Exploitation of Women and Children, McFarland Montana, Patrick (2008) Management, Barron's Educational Series Lloyd, Caroline (2008) Low-Wage Work in the United Kingdom, Russell Sage Foundation Vosko, Leah (2009) Gender and the Contours of Precarious Employment, Taylor & Francis

Political socialization and how women define politics and power Essay

There are various types of political socialization, and these have various effects on political participation. The traditional sex role socialization involves the integration of traditional roles performed by men and women into the political scene. This form of socialization has the effect of exclusion of women in political participation and dominance of politics by men. This effect has been in existence for a long time; like for instance, until 1975, exclusion of women from jury duty could be granted on ground of interference with domestic chores. According to Lawless and Fox (8-11), another type of political socialization involves the masculinized ethos, and this is the type of political socialization which relies on political institutions during campaigns. Since most of the institutions are dominated by men, then an ethos of masculinity is developed. This form of socialization is reinforced by the lack of legislature which advocates for inclusion of female participation in policy agendas. This form of socialization also serves to alienate women from positions of power and political participation. The gendered psyche is a form of socialization which ensures male domination of the political activities through infusing a culture which relegates women to the periphery in political participation. Women are made to feel valued, protected and secure, which makes it be viewed as normal for men to engage in politics but not reasonable for women to engage in it. This is a situation which is seen in the corporate scene. A large number of women normally downplay achievements in business, which makes them qualify for much lower salaries compared to men with similar or even lesser achievements. This form of socialization encourages political participation by men and discourages political participation by women. However, despite all these challenges, some women such as Latina women still manage to play very important roles in politics (Cohen & Jones 224-230). Part B How women define politics. Latina women in Boston Massachusetts play important roles in the political scene. They are involved in protest marches, community events, voter registration, election campaigns, workshops, community forums and social and political change. They play very crucial roles in the development of society and most of the women who were surveyed wanted to get involved in politics (Cohen & Jones 223-231). These women experience certain stages of development which encourage them to join politics. These stages involve the questioning of conditions where they live and searching for solutions from other people and themselves. However, some women recognize the need for change and grab the opportunity to do what they believe in. Socialism, independence and statehood are the main motivators in joining politics for some women. Other women are motivated by problems which they experienced such as poor housing, school dropout and AIDS in the community. There are also other women who believe that socialization in the family is a major determinant of joining politics. There are different perspectives of politics according to the Latina women, with some viewing it as involving giving support, and helping others in fulfilling their obligation. This is an aspect of politics which is derived from the family social setting. It can be traced to the fact that most Latinas from political supportive families, view sharing as the goal of working with other people. The Latina family traditions advocate for helping, giving or sharing and forms the basis of political activities. Women who are socialized according to this perspective aim at empowering the people in the community and sharing the resources which are available. Another perspective of politics according to the Latina women is escape from oppression. Since many Latina women have faced oppression at one point in their lives, either from the system, their husbands or fathers, they identify with this cause and believe that politics is a solution from oppression. These above perspectives capture how most Latina women define politics. Part C How women define power. According to Lawless and Fox (1-5), most women do not have the confidence to seek positions of power despite having excellent credentials and qualifications. A survey was performed and targeted four qualified career people who had high credentials, in a bid to find out their chances for running for a position of power. These people were Cheryl, Tricia, Randall and Kevin. Cheryl is an accomplished lawyer with excellent credentials while Tricia is a professor in Sociology in a large University. Randall is also a college professor while Kevin is a partner in a law firm. The survey revealed that unlike men who are ready to grab the positions of power, women did not even consider running for the same positions. Cheryl and Tricia would not consider running for a position of power, while Randall and Kevin said they would grab the opportunity immediately. This is a situation which is replicated in the political scene. Women are not ready to run for public office irrespective of the fact that they are highly qualified. Since there are no obvious obstacles in campaigning for office for the female gender, it is clear that the lack of interest in running for power plays a major role in the dominance of political scene by men. However, there are people who are of the opinion that when men run for office, the vacant seats which emerge are occupied by women, and this ensures that they still have power. This may be true, but the fact is that women are not interested in running for political and power positions. According to (Cruz 424), if women do not adopt a strategy of helping one another, they will not succeed in politics. Further research should be carried out on the topic to unmask the reasons behind this lack of interest. Works Cited. Cohen Cathy & Jones Kathy. (1997). Women transforming politics: An alternative reader. New York: New York University Press, p220-240. Cruz, Takash P. 1993. Breaking Barriers to Representation: Chicana/Latina Elected Officials in California. Journal of Urban Anthropology, p 420-430. Lawless, J. L. & Fox, R. L. (2005). It takes a candidate: Why women don’t run for office. New York: Cambridge Press, p1-13.

5 Powerful Words and Phrases That Make You Sound Like a Leader

5 Powerful Words and Phrases That Make You Sound Like a Leader Words have an incredible amount of power. Using the right words in the right setting can be a tool with enormous potential. Your choices in phrasing  can make you respected or reviled. Great leaders use words to inspire, intimidate, engage. Here are 5  phrases great and powerful leaders use- and you should too, if you’d like to  sound like a leader.1. â€Å"And†Saying â€Å"and† instead of â€Å"or† shows that you don’t think in terms of black and white, and you don’t limit your options. You add a third possibility to every either/or situation by adding the idea of both. Even if it doesn’t work out that way, there’s no use limiting your options just by the words you choose to delineate them.2. â€Å"Why†You know how little kids have that phase of â€Å"Why? Why? Why?†? Ask yourself why adults don’t use the word more often. It’s a great way to engage with the situation at hand, think outside the box, understand the problem, and come up with a more targeted and inspiring solution.3. â€Å"Tell me more.†Your impulse is to say â€Å"no.† How about saying â€Å"tell me more† instead? You might be missing something. Either way, you give your questioner  the chance to make a better case. If you  withhold your judgment until you have a more nuanced sense of what it is you’re judging, you’ll see more of the situation before deciding. It also signifies that you are willing to listen- even if you end up saying â€Å"no† in the end. Great leaders are good listeners.4. â€Å"Whether†We often get caught up in how we’re going to do something and bogged down in details of how to accomplish a task that might not be worth all the time and effort if examined more closely. If you remember to ask â€Å"whether† it’s worth approaching first, then you can save yourself and your team a lot of wasted resources and energy. As k â€Å"how† second.5. â€Å"What do you think we should do?†This is not just a great way of getting ideas from your colleagues, it’s a good way of thinking outside the box, seeing things through others’ eyes, and not limiting the variety of options at hand. You call can brainstorm together and bounce ideas off one another. Asking this question makes you the ultimate team player, someone who knows he needs others to get the task at hand done. Plus: discussion always encourages innovation. Everybody wins.

Free Essays on Revolving And Evolving

For the majority of my life, the world spun at a distance that was farther than my reach. I was floating around in a lonesome space with no direction or set destination set in mind No one was there to pat me on the shoulder and ease my pain. 17 years pass and I begin to desire to spin with the world rather than be content with my so called aimless float. I see how enjoyable life could be, besides what happiness has originality brought me thus far? To fill the emptiness inside I reach out and try to grasp the handle of acceptance on which the world spins. For a while, either noone noticed how obligated I was to grip so intensly, or even worse, nobody even cared that I was there. When you came along, the intensity of my grip was viewed upon by all of those who naturally habitated on the spinning world. With the now glaring eyes placed upon my back I face away and hold on with all of my might. I squeeze the handle too tightly and it shatters within my hands. I'm no longer with the world, but then I ask myself was I ever really? Loneliness, outcasted, no acceptance whatsoever are returned oh so familiar feelings. Now, I am pushed back farther than I started, and I wonder if I can recover. They say time heals everything, but I am too impatient to wait and find out. My head is split into two pieces, one still choosing to buy acceptance at the cost of living life as a facade, the other trying to comprehend life truthfully without the stealthfullness that was provided by the shadows that once hid my true self, allowing noones view to cross my path. You are the bond that holds the two peices together When I hear your voice my heart glows with warmthness. You took a risk and showed me kindness without knowing the immense amount of gratitude that filled my heart and soul Your eyes constantly remind me of the gentle sea, in which its depth is no greater than the care that I have for you. You taught me the importance of living l... Free Essays on Revolving And Evolving Free Essays on Revolving And Evolving For the majority of my life, the world spun at a distance that was farther than my reach. I was floating around in a lonesome space with no direction or set destination set in mind No one was there to pat me on the shoulder and ease my pain. 17 years pass and I begin to desire to spin with the world rather than be content with my so called aimless float. I see how enjoyable life could be, besides what happiness has originality brought me thus far? To fill the emptiness inside I reach out and try to grasp the handle of acceptance on which the world spins. For a while, either noone noticed how obligated I was to grip so intensly, or even worse, nobody even cared that I was there. When you came along, the intensity of my grip was viewed upon by all of those who naturally habitated on the spinning world. With the now glaring eyes placed upon my back I face away and hold on with all of my might. I squeeze the handle too tightly and it shatters within my hands. I'm no longer with the world, but then I ask myself was I ever really? Loneliness, outcasted, no acceptance whatsoever are returned oh so familiar feelings. Now, I am pushed back farther than I started, and I wonder if I can recover. They say time heals everything, but I am too impatient to wait and find out. My head is split into two pieces, one still choosing to buy acceptance at the cost of living life as a facade, the other trying to comprehend life truthfully without the stealthfullness that was provided by the shadows that once hid my true self, allowing noones view to cross my path. You are the bond that holds the two peices together When I hear your voice my heart glows with warmthness. You took a risk and showed me kindness without knowing the immense amount of gratitude that filled my heart and soul Your eyes constantly remind me of the gentle sea, in which its depth is no greater than the care that I have for you. You taught me the importance of living l... Free Essays on Revolving And Evolving For the majority of my life, the world spun at a distance that was farther than my reach. I was floating around in a lonesome space with no direction or set destination set in mind No one was there to pat me on the shoulder and ease my pain. 17 years pass and I begin to desire to spin with the world rather than be content with my so called aimless float. I see how enjoyable life could be, besides what happiness has originality brought me thus far? To fill the emptiness inside I reach out and try to grasp the handle of acceptance on which the world spins. For a while, either noone noticed how obligated I was to grip so intensly, or even worse, nobody even cared that I was there. When you came along, the intensity of my grip was viewed upon by all of those who naturally habitated on the spinning world. With the now glaring eyes placed upon my back I face away and hold on with all of my might. I squeeze the handle too tightly and it shatters within my hands. I'm no longer with the world, but then I ask myself was I ever really? Loneliness, outcasted, no acceptance whatsoever are returned oh so familiar feelings. Now, I am pushed back farther than I started, and I wonder if I can recover. They say time heals everything, but I am too impatient to wait and find out. My head is split into two pieces, one still choosing to buy acceptance at the cost of living life as a facade, the other trying to comprehend life truthfully without the stealthfullness that was provided by the shadows that once hid my true self, allowing noones view to cross my path. You are the bond that holds the two peices together When I hear your voice my heart glows with warmthness. You took a risk and showed me kindness without knowing the immense amount of gratitude that filled my heart and soul Your eyes constantly remind me of the gentle sea, in which its depth is no greater than the care that I have for you. You taught me the importance of living l...

The Causes of the Cold War essays

The Causes of the Cold War essays The Cold War lasted for over half a century, and many different factors fuelled the battle. All three major nations that were involved helped to escalate the Cold War farther. The Soviets actions in Eastern Europe, American, perhaps too aggressive actions against Soviet expansion, and Churchill and Britains ability to force America into an anti-Soviet stance, all aided in pushing the Cold War farther into a bitter battle. Post World War II the Big Three had agreed that all liberated nations would proceed to having free elections. In many of the liberated nations free elections did occur, but by 1947 Communists took control of government in Poland, Hungary and Romania. By the next year, all Eastern European nations had Communist governments. This rapid expansion of Communism into Europe helped to cause the Cold War. These actions also caused a fear of Communism within America. America then counteracted and President Truman initiated the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. The Sovi ets interpreted these actions differently then Western society. The Soviets saw these actions as aggressive and then defended themselves. This caused a continuous escalation of the relationship between the Soviets and the USA. Winston Churchill and the British Empire also played their own roll in fueling the Cold War. Churchill openly accused the Soviets of having expansionist policies and stated that an alliance needed to form between Britain and the US to stop Soviet expansion. This allowed President Truman to make his anti-Soviet policy public. Also, Churchills proclamation forced America into an anti-Soviet policy. With all three, America, Britain, and the USSR, playing roles to further the Cold War, we can see that each nation and their leaders caused the Cold War. ...

Northeast England and Scotland Economies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Northeast England and Scotland Economies - Essay Example This essay discusses that the unfolding economic crisis in the recent years has had adverse effects in many economies in the globe. The Northeast England and Scotland’s economies have not been an exception. Apparently, the two economies, in common with economies of other developed countries’ economies, have not been immune to the prevalent effects of the major economic recession in the recent years. The Scottish economy has the second largest GVA per capita of all the countries in the U.K after England. Even so, as prevalent with other industrialised economies, Scotland has recorded a decline in the importance of the manufacturing industries. There has however been a rise in the service sector of the economy which has recorded significance growth rate in the past few years. Despite all these, the Scottish economy has been marred by adverse effects of the recent economic recession. As a fact, Scottish economy has veneered falls in output and increased pressures on employ ment. However, the economy has shown some signs of recovery in the recent years. This can be attributed to the Economic Recovery Plan that will be discussed at length in this paper. On the contrary, the Northeast England has the lowest GVA per capita in England and the second lowest in the whole UK. For instance, its GVA per capita is pegged at about 80% of the U.K average. The North East economy has for many years been contingent of two major industries, coal mining and ship building. This traditional industrial base of mining, ship building, heavy engineering, Iron, Steel and manufacturing have faced tremendous decline in the recent past (Kirby, Barrell & Whitworth 2011 p.128). Perhaps, this accounts for the low economic prospects in the Northeast England. The general productivity of those who work is below the national average. Likewise, the number of people of working age in employment is below the national average. The situation is worsened by the fact that only about twenty fo ur percent of young people in the region access higher education, thus, significantly below the national target of fifty percent. Adam Smith and Michael Porter’s view on optimal development of national economies Adam Smith attacked the antiquated government restrictions. He argued that such government restrictions are responsible for hindering industrial revolution. He accused governments for allegedly interfering with the economic process through various restrictions including tariffs. According to him, this created inefficiency and resulted to high prices in the long run. The second chapter of the book is entitled â€Å"of restriction upon the importation from foreign countries of such goods as can be produced at home†. In this chapter, Smith avers that: â€Å"by preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he(an individual) intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention ... by pursuing his own interest, he frequently promotes that of the society more effectively than when he really intends to promote it† (Smith, 2011 p.212). By these words, Smith implies that human beings are naturally rational and often, they are driven by self-interest. In this regard, if left on their own, each individual will follow his and her own

Malnutrition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Malnutrition - Essay Example Deficiency of the nutrient iron is the main cause of Iron Deficiency Anaemia. This deficiency often occurs due to any or some of the following reasons; less number of iron stores in the body at birth, inadequate intake of iron (through diet or its absorption by the body), increased need of iron charged by growth and increased loss of iron from the body. Thus, as dietary iron is unable to fulfil the body’s requirements, the depletion of iron stores occurs (which is identified by a drop in serum ferritin below 12 Â µg/l). The continuation of this negative balance causes the availability of iron tissue to be compromised which, after a series of events, begins a fall in haemoglobin level. Low haemoglobin level in the body is quite dangerous because it leads to decreased immunity and, thus, chronic inflammations, especially among children. Decreased immunity and increased infections and illness cut down wellbeing and physical performance in daily living, proving how essential iron is for the body (Olivares et al 1999; Patterson et al 2000). ... antly accentuated when the obese person is lying flat and causes restlessness, daytime drowsiness, a rise in carbon dioxide and a fall in oxygen levels. These eventually develop into pulmonary hypertension and respiratory failure. Elevated amounts of fats in body also raise the total volume of blood circulating in the body. Pumping of so much blood towards and from the heart causes its left wall to enlarge, resulting in incomplete emptying of the heart’s chambers (systolic and diastolic dysfunction) and, eventually, heart failure. It is also confirmed that obese people, who generally have a higher BMI than normal people, have a greater chance of acquiring diabetes as the overall fatness influences glucose metabolism, leading to insulin resistance whenever a glucose-rich meal is taken. Obesity is the type of malnutrition that usually exists in developed countries where levels of physical activity (which burn excess body fats) are low, and can be by far the most fatal of the thr ee diseases if it is left untreated (Kopelman 2000). The final type of malnutrition-related disease is Kwashiorkor, which usually occurs in under developed countries and is caused by the imbalance of the nutrients protein and carbohydrate. It occurs most often in young children after weaning due to the fault of the guardians in providing proper compatible feeding or an adequate substitute for the mother’s protein-rich breast milk. In spite of the lack of proteins in the diet, if the child is provided with sufficient calories from carbohydrate-rich foods, the result is Kwashiorkor. The symptoms of this disease appear only after a variable interval, during which the child seems to progress normally; the child stops gaining any weight and the face, hands and feet start to swell. The child also

Program management Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Program management - Article Example PMO also aids in the improvement of the project success rates in an organization due to the incorporation of skills and expertise in the management of projects and ensures standardization of projects across the organization. The article goes further to give the two models of PMO; consultative and centralized PMO capacities and gives the other advantage of PMO as augmenting employee productivity through efficient resource allocation in an organization. The type of PMO to be implemented in an organization depends on the culture and the changes and benefits that the organization aims at achieving within a stipulated time leading to the need for customization and patience for a PMO office that result in increased bottom-line results, customer satisfaction, and resource utilization (Santosus, 2013). The article is useful in aiding the development of PMO through giving the benefits of having PMO, the strategies to introduce PMO in an organization, the challenges that are faced by a PMO, and the skills and expertise that the PMO brings to the organization. The article explores varied factors for the choice of PMO model to implement depending on the factors inherent in the organization allowing organizations to have a better understanding when developing PMO. The article also aids in developing the PMO due exposition of results from companies that have implemented the development giving companies a benchmark for their needs and results of a

Letter to dean Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Letter to dean - Essay Example I believe that the highest level Economics class remains too complicated for me and any poor performance from the course would lower my overall GPA. Maintaining competitive GPA would be vital in enrolment for immediate masters’ degree. Besides the desire to maintain my GPA, my family currently faces financial constraints. My father’s company acts as the main source of income for the family and it currently faces detrimental financial challenges. The financial constraints have restrained family expenses especially my UM and apartment fee expenditures within the school. Moreover, my younger sibling would be beginning his studies in USA this year. Consequently, I would desire to graduate this semester to enable me ease the financial constraints in my family and assist my aging father in supporting us. Therefore, it is my modest plea that you grant me a permission number to enable me realizes my coveted

How can understaning elasticity of demand help a firm in its Essay

How can understaning elasticity of demand help a firm in its planningExplain how the different levels of elasticity influence behaviour within different market structures - Essay Example Elasticity of demand explains the extent to which consumers are willing to relinquish their consumption of a particular product due to price increase and vice versa. Upon setting goals and objectives of the firm, the management ought to strategise and plan operations that facilitate goal achievement. As noted earlier, revenues can be raised by either raising quantity supplied via expansion or altering prices. Quantity supply increment is associated with increase in costs and thus requires careful analysis and hence a long-term decision. On the other hand, due to the negative effect that price has on sales; its increment does not necessarily result to increased revenue, but rather depends on the proportionate change in quantity demanded. For that reason, decision maker ought to consider elasticity of demand before initiating a price alteration. As matter of fact, increase in price may either raise or lower total revenue, though it has no effect on cost. Moreover, planners ought to understand the determinants of elasticity and work, to their advantage, either to increase or reduce it. In an inelastic demand situation, a change in price results to a less than proportionate change in sales. A rational firm may therefore increase price as it adds to revenues. However, as price the consumer surplus reduces and hence consumer’s responsiveness to price increases (Guru, 2010). At the point where elasticity becomes unitary, it makes no economical sense to raise price, since the impact on revenues is negligible if not zero. Alternatively, reducing prices on elastic commodities increases revenues and vice versa. Remarkably, in an elastic situation, the change in price is offset b the more than proportionate change in quantity demanded. Among many other factors, elasticity ought to be a key variable in pricing policies. Secondly, elasticity of demand can be used to predict availability and

FINAL Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

FINAL - Essay Example â€Å"The moral structure of discretion remains essentially the same for all officials because they are all charged to obey and implement the law and respect legal process in exercising their power and judgment† (Victoria 1). Discretion is involved in every matter of professional life for a street-level government employee. A front line officer is usually more involved in dealing with public matters because he/she has to deal with public more than the higher ranked officials do. A front line government officer should exercise his/her discretion in resolving public matters instead of sending every simple case to higher authorities. For example, a police officer should have the power to decide whether he/she should resolve a conflicting situation on his/her own or he/she should send the case to the court to decide on it. However, it depends on the nature of the case. If a case is not very complex and both conflicting parties come to the police officer to suggest a solution for t hem, then the police officer should make the decision on his/her own. Such discretions in day-to-day work not only enhance the ability of front line government offices to the critical decisions but also reduce the load of work for the government agencies. For example, if a police officer resolves simple conflicts between people on his/her own, it will reduce the workload for the court which is usually already burdened with a number of cases. However, sometimes discretion in day-today activities does not work well for the society. The reason is that the reasoning and logic that a person at a higher level can give related to public administration matters is different from the mindset of a person working as a front line government employee. Higher appointments are done based on the level of qualification and intellectual ability of people. Such people can take wise decisions by looking all aspects of matters. For example, a decision that a judge can take is more wise and merit-based th an the decision that a front line police officer takes. Similarly, a decision that the manager of an organization can take for employees is more applicable and rational as compared to the decision that an employee takes for his/her work. Therefore, we can say that the consequences if street-level bureaucrats have discretion in their day-to-day activities vary from case to case. However, the negative consequences are not able to overcome the benefits associated with discretion to day-to-day works, such as, enhanced intellectual ability and reduced workload for government agencies. â€Å"Every elected, appointed, and career official must exercise judgment and discretion in carrying out the duties and responsibilities of office† (Victoria 1). Part: B The fundamental assumption of administrative reformers in the late 1800s and early 1900s that politics could have only adverse effects on administration was true up to some extent. The reason is that the politics of that time had in corporated such elements which could have disturbed the administrative approaches and systems of almost every department. Some of such elements included thirst of power, reducing the rights of others, and political instability. All of these elements played their roles in running the political matters of Central European countries. Such elements could have broken the

Letter to dean Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Letter to dean - Essay Example I believe that the highest level Economics class remains too complicated for me and any poor performance from the course would lower my overall GPA. Maintaining competitive GPA would be vital in enrolment for immediate masters’ degree. Besides the desire to maintain my GPA, my family currently faces financial constraints. My father’s company acts as the main source of income for the family and it currently faces detrimental financial challenges. The financial constraints have restrained family expenses especially my UM and apartment fee expenditures within the school. Moreover, my younger sibling would be beginning his studies in USA this year. Consequently, I would desire to graduate this semester to enable me ease the financial constraints in my family and assist my aging father in supporting us. Therefore, it is my modest plea that you grant me a permission number to enable me realizes my coveted

FINAL Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

FINAL - Essay Example â€Å"The moral structure of discretion remains essentially the same for all officials because they are all charged to obey and implement the law and respect legal process in exercising their power and judgment† (Victoria 1). Discretion is involved in every matter of professional life for a street-level government employee. A front line officer is usually more involved in dealing with public matters because he/she has to deal with public more than the higher ranked officials do. A front line government officer should exercise his/her discretion in resolving public matters instead of sending every simple case to higher authorities. For example, a police officer should have the power to decide whether he/she should resolve a conflicting situation on his/her own or he/she should send the case to the court to decide on it. However, it depends on the nature of the case. If a case is not very complex and both conflicting parties come to the police officer to suggest a solution for t hem, then the police officer should make the decision on his/her own. Such discretions in day-to-day work not only enhance the ability of front line government offices to the critical decisions but also reduce the load of work for the government agencies. For example, if a police officer resolves simple conflicts between people on his/her own, it will reduce the workload for the court which is usually already burdened with a number of cases. However, sometimes discretion in day-today activities does not work well for the society. The reason is that the reasoning and logic that a person at a higher level can give related to public administration matters is different from the mindset of a person working as a front line government employee. Higher appointments are done based on the level of qualification and intellectual ability of people. Such people can take wise decisions by looking all aspects of matters. For example, a decision that a judge can take is more wise and merit-based th an the decision that a front line police officer takes. Similarly, a decision that the manager of an organization can take for employees is more applicable and rational as compared to the decision that an employee takes for his/her work. Therefore, we can say that the consequences if street-level bureaucrats have discretion in their day-to-day activities vary from case to case. However, the negative consequences are not able to overcome the benefits associated with discretion to day-to-day works, such as, enhanced intellectual ability and reduced workload for government agencies. â€Å"Every elected, appointed, and career official must exercise judgment and discretion in carrying out the duties and responsibilities of office† (Victoria 1). Part: B The fundamental assumption of administrative reformers in the late 1800s and early 1900s that politics could have only adverse effects on administration was true up to some extent. The reason is that the politics of that time had in corporated such elements which could have disturbed the administrative approaches and systems of almost every department. Some of such elements included thirst of power, reducing the rights of others, and political instability. All of these elements played their roles in running the political matters of Central European countries. Such elements could have broken the

Role of black church in working with black adolescents Essay Example for Free

Role of black church in working with black adolescents Essay Black churches provide family-oriented community outreach programs, which have been studied during the Black Church Family Project. Programming for youth development has been reflected in the survey data, which has been discussed in this paper. The two northern regions have been selected for this project. Frightening dangers are being confronted by the contemporary American adolescents, and therefore, it has been a timely issue. An increment has been observed in the usage of the concept of being at risk for the teenagers. In this regard, an age cohort is described in this concept, by which, the developmental movement is confronted with many negative forces towards the adulthood. The satire and irony is that the healthiest period of the lives of people is usually considered the period of adolescence. Unlike their predecessors, social illnesses are harming today’s adolescents, as untreated and untreatable diseases were harming and suffering their predecessors in the past. A sense of optimism might be provided by this concept, as prevention and intervention is possible for such social ills in today’s world. Yet, increment has been observed in the social problems, by which, today’s adolescents are being plagued. Therefore, medical and technological advances have been able to derive success of physical health, but were not able to prevent adolescents from these harmful social ills. Especially, minority youth has been influenced and affected destructively by these social ills due to various unpleasant circumstances in their lives. Following are some of the social problems that are being confronted by today’s adolescents: Poverty and a truncated educational and occupational future might be carried out by adolescent pregnancy and out-of-wedlock births, which are some of the negative consequences of social ills. A life-defining event is the outcome of these pregnancies, and the highest rate of these pregnancies has been found in the American Black citizens with low-income. â€Å"The black church can play a significant role in literacy development through its programs and activities in the black community if consideration is given in program design to the people served and to the plural meanings of the term literacy† (1999, 27-31) These events have been subscripted into the issues of pre and postnatal care, maternal, and infant mortality rates, as well as, adolescent parenthood. The generally ignored teenage father has also been included in these events. AIDS is another harmful concern, which brings diseases that can be transmitted sexually. Adolescent sexual activities and contraceptive usage stem all these diseases. In addition, peer pressure issues and biological changes have also been related with these diseases. Now, exposure has been given to adults and children emotionally, physically, and mentally. Sexual neglect and abuse of children have brought diverse affects on the teenagers. Adolescents are deprived of parental support in dysfunctional families. In the result, positive male role models are found to be lacking in these families, which affect the lives of many teenagers, especially black adolescents. Another serious problem of the youth has become the usage of alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs, which is often termed as substance abuse. Black youths are being afflicted by accidental injuries, psychoses, and physical disorders in their lives. Some of these disorders are obesity, thyroid problems, etc. Additional concerns of today’s adolescent are depression and suicide, which are increasing day by day. Adolescents are found to be involving in crime, homicide, and delinquency increasingly. Educational advancement is being delayed, problems are increasing in behavior and learning attitude of the adolescents, and high schools are indicating increment in the dropping out of the adolescents. In the result, it is creating limited career aspirations and occupational range for these adolescents, which tend them to involve in abovementioned social ills for their living. The situation for minority youth has been compounded by the discipline of harsher school. The threat of homelessness is increasing, while unemployment and underemployment rates are increasing significantly due to less education. African-American adolescents and youth are among the pronounced ones, who are confronting some of these negative trends. Over the past two decades, different researches have indicated the abovementioned negative impacts, which should be reduced and eliminated.

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) Modern biomedicine advances have impelled the demand of sensitive, accurate and fast analytical techniques for biodetection and biodiagnosis. Many tools ranging from fluorescence spectroscopy, mass spectrometry or immunoassays have been used to resolve analytical problems related with health. Although these techniques are well established, several drawbacks still limit their fully applicability, e.g. prior sample preparation, time consumption or relatively low detection limits[1]. Recent developments in laser technology and nanoscience have converted surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) as one of the techniques with highest analytical potential. The SERS effect is associated to the intense electromagnetic field enhancements provided, upon light excitation, by localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs) at the surface of a plasmonic metal with features in the nanoscale range [2]. The Raman signal of the molecules in close vicinity to the metal substrate is enormously intensifie d, allowing sensing applications down to single-molecule [3]. Since its initial discovery, almost 40 years ago, the field of SERS spectroscopy has experienced an exponential growth, renewing the interest within the scientific community[4]. Among numerous potential applications, SERS has emerged as an ultrasensitive tool for detection and identification of biomolecules, such as DNA. [1, 5]. However, although a wide range of indirect SERS-based DNA approaches have been developed (mostly relying on the mediated capture of the target DNA and the use of extrinsic SERS reporters), the direct SERS spectral analysis of unmodified DNA still remains scarcely used, despite the fact that it provides specific, selective and complete vibrational information. The major limitation has been so far the lack of spectral reproducibility at low DNA concentrations. The investigation of the native structure of DNA (especially double-stranded DNA) based on its affinity towards gold/silver substrates was ma inly hindered by the phosphate backbone of DNA, since it is negatively charged at physiological pH. Recently, the spectral reproducibility issue have been addressed by different scientific groups based on the interaction of DNA with negatively charged nanoparticles, which have renewed the interest indirect SERS-based strategies of detection of DNA.[6-9] On the other hand, Alvarez-Puebla and co-workers developed a successful alternative strategy based on the use of positively-charged silver colloids coated with spermine molecules ([emailprotected]).[10, 11] DNA is the carrier of all genetic information in living organisms. Although it is a stable macromolecule, can be subjected to changes such as mutations derived from evolution, genetic diseases or genomic aberrations which can lead to cancer.[12] Apart from the known four canonical bases contained in DNA and RNA, a variety of modified nucleobases play a major role in gene regulation.[13] In higher organisms, epigenetic information for gen regulation is needed in order to determine their functions and properties. 5-methylcytosine is the most investigated modification in mammalian genomic DNA. However, many cytosine variants in DNA regulartory network such 5-formylcytosine, 5-carboxylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine have been recently identified. In fact, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine is produced in mammalian tissues and depleted in human cancer cells.[14] These discoveries have suggested that new nucleotide variants possess epigenetic functions for gen regulation that have been underesti mated. In addition to epigenetic modifications, an ample variety of nucleobase lesions (such as alkylation, oxidation, deamination, and cross-linking) can take place as a result of carcinogen attacks to DNA.[15, 16] In some cases, carcinogens are inherently reactive toward DNA while others require to be firstly metabolically activated to electrophilic intermediates such as phagocyte-generated reactive oxygen, nitrogen and halogen species.[17-19] Anyhow, all these DNA lesions are mutagenic or cytotoxic and, if not properly repaired by the corresponding enzymatic systems, may induce base mispairing during DNA replication.[16] Accumulation of such mutations in genes controlling cell growth, proliferation, programmed cell death, and cell differentiation is likely to cause cancer.[20, 21] Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are possibly the main class of DNA damaging agents, which generates a wide set of different oxidative lesions [22] such as those produced by the direct attack of the highly reactiv e hydroxyl radical (†¢OH) to the nucleobase double bonds. On the other hand, inflammation-induced formation of 5-halocytosines adducts (5-chlorocytosine and 5-bromocytosine), have been identified in DNA from human tissues.[23-27] Importantly, 5-halocytosines could act as fraudulent epigenetic signals, in part explaining the link between chronic inflammation and cancer.[28-33] Due to the recent discoveries of new nucleotide variants with epigenetic functions, an intense research has been directed toward the development of novel methods to detect, profile, and sequence these base modifications in the genome and transcriptome.[34] These strategies span from pure detection and quantification methods (thin layer chromatography (TLC) analysis,[35] antibody-based detection,[36, 37] 32P-postlabelling[15] and liquid chromatography (LC)-mass spectrometry (MS)[38]) to genome-wide profiling methods and single-base-resolution sequencing methods.[39] A relatively new field in this exciting area is the screening of DNA samples for unknown or unanticipated lesions, which is referred to as â€Å"adductomics†.[40] Nowadays, this sort of analysis is primarily performed with liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution/accurate mass spectrometry (LC−MSn).[15, 40] This technique relies on the fragmentation of protonated modified nucleobases which are then d ifferentiated according to their molecular mass.[15, 40] However, DNA adduct analysis by mass spectrometry is costly and time-consuming since it requires a prior sample preparation which normally involves several standard steps, such as DNA hydrolysis into the corresponding monomers, enrichment of the DNA adducts, removal of unmodified nucleobases and addition of an appropriate internal standard.[40] Extreme caution must be paid to avoid artificial generation of DNA lesions during these processing steps. This research project aims the direct SERS detection of four different cytosine variants in single-stranded DNA sequences, by means of [emailprotected] colloids. 5-methylcytosine (mC) and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (hmC) were investigated due to their epigenetic importance in mammalian DNA. 5-bromocytosine (BrC) and 5-hydroxycytosine (hC) were studied as a representative modification involved in DNA damage. Transition from Raman to SERS The Raman phenomenon is related to the process where inelastic scattered photons are simultaneously emitted upon monochromatic light interaction with a specific molecule (Figure 1a). During the scattering process, a large majority of the photons are scattered at the same incident energy (Raighley scattering), whereas a small part of photons either gain or loose energy (anti-Stokes and Stokes Raman scattering respectively).[41] The resulting Raman spectral bands correspond to vibrational and rotational transitions which are specific to each molecular system providing a vibrational â€Å"fingerprint†. Raman scattering is a weak phenomenon since nearly 1 in 106 1010photons are inelastically scattered[42]. In most of the Raman studies the fraction of the spectrum involving anti-Stokes bands is usually ignored due to the weakness of the bands (Figure 1b). Although the invention of the laser in 1960s implied great improvements in Raman spectroscopy, the lack of sensitivity was stil l a sever limitation. In 1974, Fleischmann et al.[43] observed for the first time an unexpected dramatic enhancement of the Raman signal from pyridine in presence of rough silver electrodes. Later in 1977, a series of independent reports of Jeanmaire et al.[44], and Albrecht et al.[45] explained the origin of such enhancement, which renewed the interest in Raman techniques and paved the way to Surface Enhanced Raman scattering. There are two widely accepted theories that explain the origin of SERS enhancement compared to Raman scattering (Figure 1c): the electromagnetic enhancement (EM) and the chemical enhancement (CE). The EM is considered to be the major contribution of the enhancement and is highly influenced by the characteristics of the metal (composition, shape, size). This EM effect arises upon light interaction with a noble metal surface, generating collective oscillations of conduction electrons named as surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs). The coupling of these LSPRs with the emission of the analyte adsorbed or in close vicinity to the metal surface is responsible for the scattering intensification, which can reach values up to 1010-1011 [41]. In particular, large local electromagnetic fields are observed at the inter-particle junctions (known as â€Å"hot spots†) of noble metal nanoparticles which are in close proximity (mostly Ag and Au). Among others, the EM enhancement drastically decre ases as the distance between the analyte and the metal surface increases [42] which explains the requirement of close proximity between the nanostructured surface and the target molecule. The CE contribution to the SERS signal enhancement is usually weaker and, differently to the EM mechanism, is molecule-specific. In fact, when the analyte adsorbs onto the metallic substrate, a new surface-complex is formed and, new electronic transitions may be possible due to the change in the analyte properties such as the Raman polarizability. These transitions are comparable to the Resonant Raman transitions, which analogously lead to higher Raman cross sections. If both mechanisms (EM and CE) are present, their effect is assumed to be multiplicative[46]. Figure 1.(a) Schematic comparison between Raman and SERS effects (b) Raman and SERS spectra of Rhodamine G (c) SERS enhancement mechanisms***. 1.2 SERS substrates For SERS applications, noble metals substrates (mostly silver and gold) must contain features in the nano-range scale (not higher than the excitation wavelength). In fact, whereas large nanostructures highly hamper the LSPRs, too small nanostructures cannot support these plasmon resonances, leading to low enhancement factors [41]. During the past years great efforts have been made to coherently engineer SERS substrates. Two main approaches have been used for the design of SERS substrates: top down approaches, involving mainly lithographic techniques, and bottom up approaches.[47] Top down approaches allow the controlled manipulation of interparticle gaps and relatively simple functionalization of metal surfaces. In the case of bottom up approaches, nanoparticles are chemically synthetized and subsequently assembled in suspension or in ordered manner. In this context, silver and gold nanoparticles are the most used SERS-active substrates due to their outstanding optical response. Noteworthy, the LSPRs of silver substrates cover a wider wavelength range (comprising most of the visible and nearinfrared spectral region) than gold substrates. Below 600 nm, gold nanoparticles mostly absorb the incident light, hampering the surface plasmon resonances in this spectral range. [48] On the other hand, gold nanoparticles are more stable under oxidative conditions, easily prepared and with high potential tunable plasmon properties. [49] 1.3 SERS instrumentation Current dispersive Raman instruments are coupled with microscopes and several laser beam lines as excitation sources. The choice of the excitation wavelength (mainly from the visible to NIR) depends strictly on the application. An important factor to take into account when performing a SERS measurement, is the Raman scattering efficiency since it depends on the fourth power of the frequency[50]. Therefore, shorter wavelengths improve the Raman sensitivity although the risk of fluorescence or sample degradation also increases and has to be considered [51]. In this particular set-up and in most modern Raman spectrophotometers, the inelastically scattered light is collected at 180o geometry. In the confocal unit, the light from the laser initially passes through a pinhole aperture. This light is then delivered through the notch filters (interference filters) where it is completely reflected into the microscope and reaches the sample through the beam splitter. Then, the inelastically scattered light passes back through the same optics, a monocromator and finally reaches de CCD detector. The Rayleigh scattering is efficiently blocked by the notch filters.

Henrik Isbens A Dolls House Essay -- A Dolls House Essays

A Doll’s House   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In past history, society has been both very prejudiced and traditional with its view of gender roles. Often times a woman would not have had the same right to something as a man did. Many women however went against the law and tradition to do what they thought was right. In Henrik Ibsen’s play, A Doll’s House, Nora does something that is unimaginable during the time period. Nora’s husband Torvald believes he is the man of the house and that his wife should be grateful and entertaining for him. Nora however signs her father’s name to a document in an attempt to do something she feels is right. What she doesn’t realize though is that by doing so she has committed forgery. Nora’s act of forgery was inspired by many reasons, and resulted in both expected and unexpected outcomes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nora was inclined for many reasons to commit the forgery. At the time Torvald was on the verge of dying and Nora desperately wanted to save him. Doctors warned Nora that her husband’s â€Å"life was in danger† and the only thing that would â€Å"save him [was] a stay in the south† (Ibsen 976). Nora couldn’t afford to travel though and was forced to somehow find the money. During this time period however â€Å"a wife [couldn’t] borrow without her husband’s consent†, so Nora had to get a man’s signature to take out a loan (976). Nora knew Torvald would not take out a loan because it would hurt his reputation as a banker, so she forged her father’...

Atmospheres Unlimited in Macbeth :: Free Macbeth Essays

Atmospheres Unlimited in Macbeth      Ã‚  Ã‚   Shakespeare becomes a master of diverse atmospheres in his tragedy Macbeth. We shall examine closely the changing, more forcefully developing atmospheres here.    Blanche Coles states in Shakespeare's Four Giants that he agrees with G. B. Harrison, that this play contains one of the finest examples of atmosphere ever created in drama:    Macbeth is overwhelmed with the significance of his filthy deed. His wife is concerned only with the details of what must be done next - with facts. She has no imagination. The passage between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth after the murder is one of the finest examples of atmosphere ever created in drama."(62)    In Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy, Northrop Frye shows how the atmosphere is altered for the better at the end of the play:    This theme is at its clearest where we are most in sympathy with the nemesis. Thus at the end of Macbeth, after the proclamation "the time is free," and of promises to make reparations of Macbeth's tyranny "Which would be planted newly with the time," there will be a renewal not only of time but of the whole rhythm of nature symbolized by the word "measure," which includes both the music of the spheres and the dispensing of human justice [. . .]. (94-95)    D. F. Bratchell in Shakespearean Tragedy record's Charles Lamb's consideration of   Macbeth's atmosphere as essential to the purpose of the play:    For Lamb the essence of the tragedy in Macbeth lies in the poetically suggested atmosphere of horror and evil impulse, readily seized upon by the imagination of the perceptive reader, whereas stage representation concentrates the mind on the action. (133-34) Roger Warren comments in Shakespeare Survey 30 , regarding Trervor Nunn's direction of Macbeth at Stratford-upon-Avon in 1974-75, on opposing imagery used to support the opposing atmospheres of purity and black magic:    Much of the approach and detail was carried over, particularly the clash between religious purity and black magic. Purity was embodied by Duncan, very infirm (in 1974 he was blind), dressed in white and accompanied by church organ music, set against the black magic of the witches, who even chanted 'Double, double to the Dies Irae. (283)    L.C. Knights in the essay "Macbeth" mentions equivocation, unreality and unnaturalness in the play - contributors to an atmosphere that may not be very realistic:

Cherokee Indians Essay

The word Cherokee is believed to have evolved from a Choctaw word meaning â€Å"Cave People†. It was picked up and used by Europeans and eventually accepted the adopted by Cherokees in the form of Tsalagi or Jalagi. Traditionally, the people now known as Cherokee refer to themselves as aniyun-wiya, a name usually translated as â€Å"the Real People† sometimes â€Å"the Original People. † Cherokees’ have had a democratic government (Conley, Robert J. 2000). The Cherokees’ first experience with the invading white man was almost certainly a brief encounter with the deadly expeditionary force of Spanish explorer Hernando DeSoto in 1540. English colonial traders began to appear among the Cherokees around 1673. Such interactions produced some mixed marriages, usually between a white trader and a Cherokee woman. There were three main events during the 18th and 19th centuries: war with the colonist in 1711; epidemics of European disease (primarily smallpox); and the continual cession of land in 1775. The Cherokees were forced to sign one treaty after another with the new United States government, each one giving away more land to the new nation. In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson planned to move all eastern Indians to a location west of the Mississippi River, and signed an agreement with the state of Georgia promising to accomplish that deed as soon as possible. Andrew Jackson actually set the so-called â€Å"Removal Process† in motion. Meantime the government had been oing everything in its power to convince Cherokees to move west voluntarily, and the first to do so were the faction known as Chickamaugans (Conley, Robert J. 2000). The history and traditions of the Cherokee Indians of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries are inextricably linked to the history and traditions of the white southerners. Many facets of Cherokee lifestyle and other Indian tribes in the Southern United States were modified and adapted from white methodology. Aspects of those cultural features were rooted in Pre-Columbian traditions. The Celtic culture of people who colonized the Southern United States and the culture’s charcterictics were the catalyst of what was arguably the most pivotal event in American History, the War Between the States. Many respected scholars have argued that the Ante-bellum south was different than the north, in its lifestyles, philosophies, and more. The southern states and their populations were undeniably different in nearly every socioeconomic and political aspect from the northern states and their respective populations. The destinies of the white southerners and Indian were connected in many ways. They had a number of common interests, traditions, ideals and goals. Some of these similarities were chance; others were due to an intimate relationship developed over centuries of close contact, a relationship created by the dynamic elements in the Cherokee’s new familiarity with their white neighbors and their culture (Bullard, F. B. 1989). The Cherokee adopted some practices willingly, others were forced upon them and some were already in place in some form in their traditional culture. Charles Hudson speculates in his work that the Cherokee and other tribes adopted the measures of civilization in acquiescence to the inability of the Cherokee to compete militarily with the white populous. The Cherokee and other tribes had adopted the techniques and social concepts of white â€Å"civilization† long before they were encouraged to do so by whites and their military intimidation. For the Indian, all white men were a threat to their traditions and cultural tenets. Use of a caste system was a part of the Cherokees ‘social structures before contacts with whites. The white south created its own social caste system with white planters as the aristocracy and the African slave at the peon (Bullard, F. B. 1989). The colonists who settled in the south were different than their counterparts in the North. The main heritage of the southern colonists was the Celtic in contrast to the English heritage of the colonists who settled in the north. The Celtic heritage these southerner colonists brought to North America from Europe had a profound effect on their folkways as well as influencing their Indian neighbors. Traditional Cherokee lands had incorporated ass of Kentucky, much of Tennessee, Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, North Carolina and a small part of Virginia and what is now West Virginia. The spatial proximity was one reason for the development of an identity with the Southern colonist and their institutions and traditions (Bullard, F. B. 1989). Indian agent for the United States, George Butler, commented that he felt the majority of the material progress in the Indian Territory was a result of slavery. The age of masters measured in the distribution in slaves provides evidence for the upward mobility of slavery for the Cherokee. The principal difference from the white south was the treatment of slaves in the Cherokee Nation. The Cherokee avoided mistreatment of the slaves and Major Ridge’s wife Susanna would not even use the word â€Å"slave†. There are many indications that the Cherokee treated their slaves comparatively well, one former slave of Martin Vann, commented that â€Å"they the slaves had to be feed well, clothed well, and housed well to get the best labor attainable from them† (Bullard, F. B. 1989). The most common agents of change among the Cherokee lifestyle were resident traders, missionaries and government agents. The Cherokee Indians modified their traditions for many reasons, among these reasons were: to placate white politicians and land grabbers and reinforce the federal government policies, philanthropists who wanted to â€Å"civilize† them and most important of all voluntary adaptation in an effort to preserve at least some government policies (Bullard, F. B. 1989). Cherokee Indians religion: It would be a mistake to see these two Cherokee spirit worlds as heaven and hell. They are not defined as good and evil, although the one below is seen as tremendously chaotic. They are thought of simply as being opposed to one another. We live our lives between them in a constant state of precarious balance. This dangerous situation, although the most important aspect of life in this traditional Cherokee view is to maintain balance and harmony. If the Cherokees are Christian, they might be Methodist, Presbyterian, Unitarian, or other Christian denomination. Although the more traditional Cherokees is a large group of Cherokee Baptists. Cherokee Baptists attend what are called Indian churches, where they make use of the Cherokee language (Conley, Robert, J. 2000). Cherokee Indian tribes were one of the largest of five Native American tribes who settled in American Southeast portion of the country. The tribe came from the Iroquoian descent. The Cherokees’ actually lived in cabins made of logs instead of the stereotypical tee pee. Very strong tribe with several smaller sections, all lead by chiefs. This tribe was highly religious and spiritual. Around the 1800’s the Cherokee Indians began to adopt the culture that the white man brought to them. At this time they began to dress more European, and adopted many of their farming and building methods. In 1828 gold was discovered on the Cherokee’s land. This prompted the overtaking of their homes, and was forced out. They had been settled in Georgia for many years, but now they were being made to leave and find a new place to settle/live. This was the historically popular Trail of Tears, where men, women, and children had to pack up their belongings and find new homes, and marching a span of thousands of miles. Today’s Cherokees’ have a strong sense of pride in their heritage (Indians. org 2011). A Historical person during this time Was John Ross in which became principal chief of the Cherokee nation. In 1827, following the establishment of a government modeled on that of the United States. He presided over the nation during the apex of its development in the Southeast, the tragic Trail of Tears, and the subsequent rebuilding of the nation in Indian Territory, in present day. Accompanying his people on the â€Å"trail where they cried,† Ross experienced personal tragedy. His wife, Quatie, died of exposure after giving her only blanket to a sick child. Once in Indian Territory, Ross led the effort to establish farms, businesses, schools, and even colleges. Even though the Cherokee Nation was torn apart politically after the fight over the removal treaty, Ross clung to reins of power (Moulton, Gary E. 004). In conclusion, Although Cherokee Indians were a very diverse tribe and had very many different talents. They were very spitural and worshiped only one spirit and that was good spirit, and eventually followed christanity. Trail of Tears was a very emotional time for all Cherokee Indians the time when they were forced out and were here before anyone ever settled America. This time for Men, Women, and Children was a shame. My grand dad always take for granted what you have cause someone can take it away in an instant; as they did to the Indians.

The Ship of Theseus

ABSTRACT: Endurantism and perdurantism are theories that describe how objects can persist through time. These theories will be used in an effort to solve a puzzle that has been dated all the way back to the first century: the Ship of Theseus. It will be determined that the two theories fail in solving the Ship of Theseus puzzle. According to Brian Garrett of Australian National University, metaphysics is concerned with the nature and identity of objects. 1 In order to increase understanding of the identity of objects, puzzles of constitution and identity are used by philosophers.There is a puzzle common in metaphysics: the Ship of Theseus, which was believed to be recorded by Plutarch in the late first century2. It is complex puzzle that consists of three different scenarios. The first scenario depicts a ship being dismantled and then rebuilt. The second scenario portrays the ship being completely remodeled. The third scenario is a mixture of the previous ones that have the ship bein g completely remodeled, but the removed planks are used to construct another ship. In order to solve this puzzle, one must be able to identify which ship is the Ship of Theseus.Philosophical theories can be used to solve philosophical puzzles such as this one and there are two theories that exist that help one understand how objects persist through time: endurantism and perdurantism. According to endurantism, ordinary objects are wholly present at each moment of time at which they exist3. In perdurantism, objects are four dimensional entities that consist of temporal and spatial parts and these objects persist by having different temporal parts at different times4. Once one has knowledge of endurantism and perdurantism, the theories can be used to solve puzzles such as the Ship of Theseus.However, in this paper, it will be shown that the puzzle of the Ship of Theseus cannot be solved using endurantism and perdurantism. This is because attempts made by endurantists and perdurantists result in unintuitive consequences. This will be done first by explaining and assessing endurantism and perdurantism. Then it will be shown that the two theories fail in solving the Ship of Theseus because of problems that are encountered. After that, the Extensionality Principle will be discussed, which is used by perdurantists as a criterion for identity.It will be determined that this principle is also flawed and is also unable to give an account for the identity of objects. Firstly, endurantism is the view that physical objects are three-dimensional and move through time. They are wholly present at each moment of time at which they exist. For example, if a man was born in 1975, attended kindergarten class in 1980, and graduated from high school in 1993, endurantists would claim that this man was wholly present at each of those different times. He will continue to wholly exist in the future as well.Primary motivation for this theory is that it is a more conventional view and is m ore in conjunction with believed upon ideas about the world. For example, when a woman is talking to someone, she believes that she is talking to that person as a complete object, wholly present; as opposed to just a temporal part of an object. The theory of endurantism has been explained. It must be noted, however, that this theory holds that two numerically distinct, but wholly present objects can co-exist for some of the time or at all times.Brian Garrett says that this hinders the authenticity of endurantism because the statement is strange5. Perdurantism does not have this problem. The theory of perdurantism is the view that ordinary objects are four-dimensional and are composed of temporal parts. An object is not wholly present at every possible time at which it exists because only its temporal parts exist. In the previous example, when the man is born, or attends kindergarten, or graduates from high school, the man is not wholly present according to perdurantism.Instead, it i s the man’s temporal parts that existed during those events; the man itself exists as a four-dimensionally extended whole. Primary motivation for perdurantism is that this theory is able to account for change within a physical object because the objects are four-dimensional. On the contrary, endurantism does not have this luxury. Perdurantism is also primarily motivated by how it better accommodates Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity. There are problems that arise if both endurantism and special relativity are true. According to Steven D. Hales and Timothy A.Johnson of Bloomsburg University, â€Å"it would be misguided to argue† for endurantism because special relativistic effects â€Å"are negligible at human speeds†. 6 The theory of special relativity does not allow for endurantism because of how it requires objects such as humans to move through time at a slower speed than the speed of light. Given that special relativity is a widely accept ed theory, perdurantists have strong motivation to prove their view7. Secondly, even though endurantism and perdurantism help explain the persistence of objects over time, neither view is able to solve the puzzle of the Ship of Theseus.In the Ship of Theseus, there are three different scenarios. In the first scenario, the Ship of Theseus is dismantled and then rebuilt with each plank being returned to its original location— we’ll call this ship Y1. In the second scenario, the ship is completely remodeled with an entirely new set of planks— we’ll call this ship X1. In the third scenario, two ships are involved. The ship from the second scenario (now called ship X) is present, but an entirely different ship that is being constructed out of the planks that had been removed (called ship Y) is also present.In order to solve this puzzle, the Ship of Theseus must be identified. However, flaws in endurantism are shown by how the endurantist must deny that Y1 is e qual to Y. This is done in order to respect the necessity of identity and non-identity which states that if x = y, then necessarily x = y8. However, what this entails is that one could claim that if the removed planks had not been replaced in the third scenario, then ship Y would not have existed and instead ship Y1 would have existed. This means that the existence of ship Y or Y1 entirely depends on whether or not the removed planks were replaced.Brian Garrett refers to this consequence as â€Å"strange† because â€Å"we don’t think that the existence of a particular ship (or of anything else in space and time) depends on what happens in a region of the universe which exerts no causal influence on it†9. This is a flaw for the endurantism theory because it denotes that an object’s existence is dependent on an event that has no direct influence on it. Furthermore, perdurantism also fails in correctly solving the Ship of Theseus. According to perdurantism, the third scenario involves the presence of two ships prior to the repair of the Ship of Theseus.They are overlapping one another. This represents that the ships have a common temporal segment where they are basically one and the same ship. After the repair, the two ships separate with one being ship X and the other being ship Y. The problem, however, is that one cannot think that there are three possible outcomes anymore. One cannot think that the future of the Ship of Theseus will be the same as that of the ship in the first scenario, the ship in the second scenario, or the ships in the third scenario because each of the ships are distinct from one another.This is a problem, according to Garrett, because people â€Å"could sensibly wonder† if the future for the Ship of Theseus will be like any of the three scenarios when it is being constructed10. He means that ordinary people should be able to think about the Ship of Theseus and think about what future it might behold. How ever, the theory of perdurantism must deny that three possible futures are available for the ship. As a result, we are left with either believing that people are not able to wonder about the ship’s future (which cannot be true) or perdurantism is unable to solve the puzzle of the Ship of Theseus.Moreover, perdurantism fails in solving the puzzle because of the name: ‘Ship of Theseus’. It has been discussed that the Ship of Theseus has a temporal part where there are two overlapping ships. However, which of the two overlapping ships is the actual Ship of Theseus when the name is being called? This is a problem because both ships cannot be called the Ship of Theseus. Perdurantism cannot account for this confusion. This shows that perdurantism is unable to solve the puzzle of the Ship of Theseus.Overall, the theories of endurantism and perdurantism have been explained and it has been shown that both theories are unable to solve the puzzle of the Ship of Theseus. How ever, there are criterions for identity that exist that could provide a criterion of identification for objects through time. One criterion for identity that will be talked about is the Extensionality Principle; it is used by perdurantists because it is a criterion of identity for four-dimensional objects11. The Extensionality Principle, according to Garrett, states: if x and y are objects with the same proper parts, then x=y.This means that if two different objects have the same properties, then the two objects are the same12. However, there are flaws in the Extensionality Principle that causes it to fail in providing a criterion of identification. According to Lecture notes, in order for objects to be identical, it is not enough for the object to have all the same parts. This is because the parts of identical objects must be related to each other or arranged in a certain order13. Therefore, a problem arises regarding temporal parts of an object. How do the temporal parts have the proper order?As a result of this problem, the Extensionality Principle must be revised. But if it is revised, according to lecture notes, the principle will no longer be an extensional principle14. Furthermore, there is no explanation as to why time would provide the correct order for temporal parts of an object. These problems show that the Extensionality Principle fails in providing a criterion of identification; and this harkens back to how the puzzle of the Ship of Theseus cannot be solved. It has been shown that the puzzle of the Ship of Theseus cannot be solved.This was first determined by explaining the theories of endurantism and perdurantism and revealing the primary motivation for each of them. These theories depict how objects persist through time; yet, the theories cannot be used to correctly solve the Ship of Theseus puzzle. Lastly, the Extensionality Principle was described and it was shown that the principle was unable to solve the Ship of Theseus puzzle. As one can s ee, the Ship of Theseus is a difficult puzzle to solve and it has been around since the late first century. Will there ever be a theory that correctly identifies the Ship of Theseus once and for all?

The completion of the Severn Tidal project on the coastline between Essay

The completion of the Severn Tidal project on the coastline between England and Wales - Essay Example The essay discusses that currently, 450 million litres of water passes through the Severn Estuary on the coastline between Wales and England. This water is a collection of inland rivers and waterbodies that deposit their flow into the Sea at this point. It provides a great opportunity for a power generation facility at that would tap energy for users in Wales and England. The government and key stakeholders including members of the international community have agreed that Britain should cut its carbon emission to just 20% by the year 2050. This means that Britain will have to cut its carbon emission by 80% in the next four decades. There is therefore the need for the people of the United Kingdom to identify alternative means of producing energy. The consumption of petroleum products and hydrocarbon fuels increased at a very fast rate after the Second World War. The Kyoto Protocol identified that Britain accounts for about 5% of the world's carbon emission into the atmosphere. This is highly disproportionate to the size of Britain which is relatively small. Since the trend of global warming is an international matter, Britain has come under severe pressure to identify ways of cutting down on its reliance on hydrocarbons. Thus, the proposition of the British government to cut down emissions by 80% in 2050 has become more of a serious objective now than ever. One of the core solutions to the problem is to identify renewable energy options for the United Kingdom. Tidal power generation is one of the options available to a nation like Britain in her bid to identify an alternative to the reliance on hydrocarbons. The Climate Change Act gives legitimacy and force to the plans of the UK government to cut down on CO2 emissions. This means that the state has a tougher legal obligation to put its resources to use to produce a strong and potent method of dealing with climate change. The UK government has been involved with some key stakeholders in an attempt to find soluti ons to this problem. The main stakeholders who have been involved in discussions on providing solutions are: 1. The UK Government 2. Private Sector Energy Companies 3. The UK Public 4. Environmental Groups in practice and academia. These groups have been involved in various degrees of consultation and discussions on the matter. The Severn coastline offers one of the greatest opportunities for the establishment of a renewable energy system. This can be done by creating dams, barrages or some other facilities that will make use of the energy generated by the movement of the water on the coastline. These stakeholders have spent two years undertaking feasibility studies about the creation of an energy generation system on the Severn coastline. These feasibility studies has taken an number of core issues into account. The findings of the Severn consultation activities indicate that the project is capable of providing 15% of Britain's energy needs. This means that a dam on the estuary can potentially provide a significant solution to the carbon emission targets that has been set by the UK government in the Climate Change Act. This will obviously curb the volume of carbon emission and reduce the effects of pollution emanating from the United Kingdom. In the process, the stakeholder group collected a total of 10 proposals about how a power generation system could be set up at the Severn coast of the United Kingdom. These ten proposals were assessed on the basis of benefits,

Organisational Learning and Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organisational Learning and Development - Essay Example These new practices rely upon the idea that performance depends not only on hard and attenuating work of the personnel, but also on such essential characteristics as competence and ability to learn and develop. Despite seeming simplicity, the problem of effective learning and development of employees is exceptionally complex, and if a company fails to properly, effectively and continuously train and educate its human resources in the right areas of the business, at the right time and at the right cost, serious inefficiencies are likely to arise. This will inevitably result in considerable operational difficulties and sometimes may even lead to failure of the organisation (Buckle & Caple, 2004). Information, knowledge, and skills have already become the key aspects of new economic environment (Guest, 1987). As a result, modern organizational studies place increasingly distinct emphasis on issues associated with learning and development of personnel. An effective HRD programme should be built around three basic theoretical concepts: organizational development change, leadership development, and individual, group and organizational learning (Reid, Barrington & Brown, 2004). ... In the past, learning focused primarily on individuals: people worked in large bureaucracies or assembly lines and, consequently, the goal of learning under such circumstances was training of the skills required for their functioning. However, since approximately three decades ago the focus of learning in organisations started to shift from individuals to groups and, what was even more important, the meaning underlying the concepts of 'learning', 'training' and 'development' transformed dramatically. Scholars began to perceive these constructs as continuous rather than occasional while the purpose and the process of learning were also reformulated and recognised as vital for effective organizational performance (Harrison, 2005). The existing research in organizational learning available up to date demonstrates that there are at least three major things adult learners need to know: - What will be learned; - How the learning will be conducted; - Why the new knowledge will be of any value (Knowles, 1984). The need to know about these three aspects strongly affects employees' motivation to learn, outcomes of learning, and motivation to use new knowledge. Normally, five phases of organizational learning are identified in the literature: 1. Analysis The first phase involves full analysis of the organizational needs, identification of the goals which, when reached, will equip employees with knowledge and skills to meet the organization's needs (Buckley & Caple, 2004). The first questions to be asked in the analysis phase are "Is there a need for training" and "If something is wrong, is it caused by a performance problem that training will fix" In the analysis phase the responsibilities/duties required at a certain position are identified and